Table of Contents

Acknowledgements IX

Part I Framing Integration and Solidarity in Contemporary Liberal Democracies

1 The Meaning of 'We' Thomas Hylland Eriksen 2

1.1 What is a society? 2

1.2 The need for complex methods 6

1.3 The dual revolution of the 21st century 10

1.4 Tensions in the 21st century world 13

1.5 Dominant relations of inclusion and exclusion 15

1.6 What is integration? 16

References 20

2 The Politics of Integration Peter Kivisto 22

2.1 Framingthe analysis: Multiculturalism as claims-making 23

2.2 Diversity and integration in the Nordic social democracies 28

References 34

Part II Case Studies from the Nordic Nations

3 Democracy's Challenge: Nordic Minority Politics in the European Context Peter A. Kraus 38

3.1 Democracy, the people and the paradox of sovereignty 38

3.2 The challenge of minorities 43

3.3 Minority politics in the Nordic context 46

References 50

4 Divergence and Convergence in Minority Law and Policies in the Nordic Countries Sia Spiliopoulou Aermark 52

4.1 Introduction 52

4.2 The Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities and its ratification by the Nordic countries 54

4.3 The concept of 'minority' in the four countries examined 58

4.4 Concluding reflections 68

5 Migration, Multiculturalism and Gender - a Nordic Perspective Birte Siim 71

5.1 Rethinking citizenship and diversity 73

5.2 Multicultural citizenship and gender equality 75

5.3 The multicultural challenge to the Nordic welfare states 77

5.4 The Nordic gender equality paradox 80

5.5 Framings and regulations regarding headscarves in Nordic nations 82

5.6 Conclusion: Multiculturalism and gender equality - issues and strategies 86

References 88

6 Dynamics of Recognition: Minority Ethnic Access to Transformative Power in the Nordic Welfare State Camilla Nordberg 91

6.1 Introduction 91

6.2 Recognition of social injustice 92

6.3 Institutional and cultural constraints to agency 93

6.4 The local context of agency: The 'universalist' welfare state and its ethno-cultural others 95

6.5 Dynamics of Roma activist participatory encounters in Finnish society 96

6.5.1 The rationales of political agency 97

6.5.2 The limits of the public sphere in Finland 100

6.6 State policy and Roma and Traveller mobilisation in Sweden and Norway 101

6.6.1 Social policy, education and subordinated agency in Sweden 102

6.6.2 Control, discipline and emerging resistance in Norway 103

6.6.3 Diverging trajectories? 104

6.7 Conclusion 105

References 107

7 From Ignorance to Effective inclusion: The Role of National Minorities within the Finnish Consensus Culture Reetta Toivanen 110

7.1 Prologue 110

7.2 Equality mainstreaming or societal strait-jacket? 111

7.3 Minorities in Finland 113

7.4 Finnish commitment to equality and the practice of ignorance 115

7.5 The Sami and the Roma in Finland: Two unlike minority populations 118

7.5.1 Difference rights for Sámi vs. sameness rights for Roma? 119

7.5.2 Defining minority identity in a majority context 120

7.5.3 The public sphere as a hegemonic setting co-defines minoritisation 121

7.6 Sámi and the denial of the right to their own culture 122

7.6.1 International law and ways to sidestep its requirements 123

7.6.2 National laws and ways to sidestep their provisions 126

7.7 Roma - a persistent underclass 129

7.7.1 Blood feuding 131

7.7.2 The Roma language - revitalisation efforts of a secret code 133

7.8 Power as a theory and a practice 134

References 138

8 Orchestrating National Unity: An Assessment of Discourses in Immigrant Legislation and the Surrounding Parliamentary and Public Debates Niko Pyrhönen Karin Creutz Marjukka Weide 141

8.1 Introduction 141

8.2 Framing the boundary-work of national unity - a model of discursive practices with reference to the preparatory process of the Aliens Act of 2004 144

8.3 Parliamentarians' constructions of national unity through the state 152

8.3.1 National solidarity 154

8.3.2 Costs and gains 155

8.3.3 The strong embrace of the state 157

8.3.4 The sound political process 159

8.4 A macro-societal approach to immigration topics - media discourses and internet debates 160

8.4.1 The meta-discourse: Finnishness through boundaries 161

8.4.2 Management of the pros and cons of immigration - the instrumentalist frame 162

8.4.3 Immigration as societal threat - negotiating solidarity 163

8.4.4 Prioritising 'us' - the precedence of the majority 164

8.4.5 Integration through legislative policies - immigration from a govern mentalist perspective 165

8.4.6 The media and internet discussions as a reification of the institutionalised policy-oriented discourses 166

8.5 Concluding discussion 166

References 169

Appendix 1 Original Quotes 172

9 Social Capital as a Resource for Political Participation: Finland in a Nordic Comparative Perspective Niklas Wilhelmsson 176

9.1 Introduction and research questions 176

9.2 Political participation 180

9.2.1 The importance of political participation and equality 181

9.2.2 Political rights of migrants in the Nordic countries 181

9.3 The explanatory variable: social capital 183

9.3.1 Bridging and bonding social capital 183

9.3.2 Hypotheses 185

9.4 Control variables 185

9.5 Political participation among migrants in Finland 186

9.5.1 Organisational participation among immigrants in Finland 187

9.5.2 An analysis of the link between organisational participation and electoral participation among migrants in Finland 189

9.6 Civic rights, electoral participation and organisational activity among migrants in a Nordic comparative perspective 192

9.7 Discussion 196

9.8 Conclusions 197

References 198

Index 202